此篇文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:一、六個月大的自閉症高危險群嬰兒,在照顧者不主動互動時,會比六個月大的自閉症低危險群嬰兒,有較少的眼神注視;二、無論自閉症高危險群或低危險群嬰兒,在因果關係的聯結學習上並無差異。文中提及到兩個比較難理解的專有名詞:(1) Joint Attention(wiki連結),翻譯為「共享式注意力」,比較簡單地解釋請參照這個連結與圖片。其實,共享式注意力時常在我們生活之中,也是對自身非常習以為常的能力,譬如當你看到對方盯著你的背後,你就會轉過頭看是什麼(常被用來作為鬼片的情節),但自閉症患者卻缺乏這項能力。

(2)Associative Learning(wiki連結):翻譯是「聯結學習」,最基本的就是帕夫洛夫的制約學習(Pavlov's conditioning),但文中,有提到因果(cause & effect),當然六個月大的嬰兒不可能做到複雜的因果推理,但意思指的是,嬰兒能否藉由自己操作物體而發現環境中物理運動關係的能力,譬如實驗中,拉操作桿而玩具會動起來。至於,為何這兩者會放在一起討論,重點在於關聯主義、聯結主義(associationism, connectiveism),而如果仔細思考,第一項的共享式注意力現象,即是行為主義難以解釋的現象之一,因為共享式注意力似乎沒有增強與清楚配對的學習過程;但文中也說明,可以藉由不斷地訓練,藉由第二項的聯結學習可以使得第一項的共享式注意力能力培養起來。當然最後這段說法純粹是個人意見,學者將兩者放在一起討論主要是為了尋求自閉症患者失去了何者能力。

 


Medical News Today

 

Infant's Gaze May Be An Early, But Subtle, Marker For Autism Risk

02 Sep 2010

Kennedy Krieger Institute announced new study results showing an early marker for later communication and social delays in infants at a higher-risk for autism may be infrequent gazing at other people when unprompted. Published in the September issue of the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, the study also found that six-month-old high-risk infants demonstrated the same level of cause and effect learning skills when compared to low-risk infants of the same age.

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文章轉錄自Science Daily(點此連結);文章主要論述:不論是年齡、種族、宗教、性別這些範疇的刻板印象,對曾經歷過負面刻板印象影響的人,即便已經脫離該環境,此偏見的負面效果仍始終對這些人持續影響著;第一、文中提及,過去心理學研究早已發現,人在刻板印象的環境中會表現的如同刻板印象一般,最經典的論述即是,如果在課堂上老師傳達出「女生的數學比男生來得差」,在數學表現上,接收此概念的女生會比未接受到此概念的女生表現來得差(這研究的經典在於解釋,男女性別差異可能並非來自於先天,而是來自於社會期待與塑造),但這篇文章繼續研究,當這群接受到負面刻板印象影響的人,脫離了原先刻板印象的環境,是否就會變回初始?答案是:否定的,甚至會持續影響到他們之後的敵意及其他認知能力作業。第二、刻板印象的延續其實是可以料想得到,畢竟「過去影響現在」,但更值得探討的提問是,這負面影響到多大?(或許你也想問,這影響會持續多久?)負面影響是只使她對自己數理能力缺乏自信外,或而如文中所說,還甚至影響到情緒、自我控制、飲食量、認知決策能力等;而這篇研究正是敘述:刻板印象的塑造與負面影響可能超乎我們所能想像的廣泛與深遠。第三、這研究是實驗室的操弄,在現實中,沒有一個人不存活於刻板印象的負面之中(至少高矮美醜胖瘦一定會有),但若真的按照此研究敘述,那麼每一個人都有刻板印象這廣泛又深遠的負面影響,即是整個社會大家相互集體減分,或許你會想到解套的說法,就是有人可以抵擋刻板印象的負面影響,而不致於減分太嚴重(有人雖然減分但是有加分回來),因而,更進一步的追問就是,哪些因素是讓人不會或少受到刻板印象的負面影響呢?(如果你贊成我說的,刻板印象只是讓大家相互彼此減分,我們為什麼不去創造一個大家可以彼此加分的社會?)


Stereotyping Has a Lasting Negative Impact, New Research Finds

ScienceDaily (Aug. 11, 2010) — Aggression. Over-eating. Inability to focus. Difficulty making rational decisions. New research out of the University of Toronto Scarborough shows prejudice has a lasting negative impact on those who experience it.

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文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:荷蘭研究團隊嘗試經由驗血(血液測試)來診斷精神病症,如憂鬱症;精神醫學不像其它醫學領域有診斷性的驗血測驗,研究者試著經由分析基因組型以區辨出重度憂鬱患者和健康者兩大族群,文中亦指出這概念初想還只跨出第一步,驗血雖然不會產生偏見,但是測驗的敏感度和準確性目前仍無法在精神醫學上提供確切診斷與治療判斷。第一、古希臘的希波克拉底(Hippocrates)曾提出體液學說以說明人類四種體液的平衡會影響健康與氣質性格(請參考維基百科:Humorism),舉例來說:憂鬱症即是和黑膽汁(black bile)有關(其實中醫應也有如此的說法);第二、測驗同時要考量信度(reliability)和效度(validity),使用驗血來診斷重度憂鬱症的測驗現階段恐為有穩定信度但卻沒有效度;第三、假想這驗血研究真的成功,你會願意紮幾針來監測自己目前的精神狀態嗎?或,你願意政府、健保制度推廣此驗血篩選來檢測你的憂鬱情緒,並加以記錄在你的健保晶片卡上?


Medical News Today

Could A Diagnostic Blood Test Be Created For Depression?

25 Jul 2010

Psychiatry, unlike many other areas of medicine, lacks diagnostic blood tests. Blood tests have been extremely useful in helping doctors make medical diagnoses and aiding them in treatment options for conditions and diseases in most medical fields.

An article in Biological Psychiatry reports that Dutch researchers may eventually generate blood tests for psychiatric conditions, such as depression.

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此篇文章轉錄自Los Angeles Times(點此連結);文章主要論述:在過去,美國的愛滋病盛行率研究限制在兩個高危險群,男同志和使用針筒注射的用藥者,但在此篇研究,試圖先將這兩個族群抽出,做出一份「異性戀」的研究,一、無論膚色和種族,低收入的異性戀其得愛滋病陽性的機率比剩餘的族群高於五倍;二、愛滋病盛行率以總體而言,黑人高於白人八倍,拉丁裔高於白人三倍,但一旦落於貧窮線下(即低收入),這些不同種族的得病率差異就消失了(至少在這份研究中)。基於這份研究,提出四點值得思索之處,一、差異可能不見得在於種族,而是在於社經地位,若有高社經地位越有能力免於疾病,尤其在美國社經地位與種族相綁;二、當我們認為自己因社經地位高而可以免於疾病,這又成為迷思,因為社經地位高的背後實質為,有更多能力與自由接受教育、接受到衛教資訊,並不是因為你的薪水與名聲保護了你的身體;三、貧窮與許多現象常常相綁,譬如高犯罪率,但問題核心真的是貧窮嗎?這部份相關研究的盲點又再度顯現,譬如罹患愛滋病使得該病患收入下降至貧窮線下,並非貧窮使得該病患罹患愛滋病,(抑或這是一個雪上加霜的過程,貧者越貧?);四、畢竟社會制度與社會環境是連動著疾病盛行率的,如果你認同,貧窮是萬惡之源、社會不公義的縮影,低經濟地位是愛滋病的危險因子(Risk Factor),那麼當你願意關注愛滋病議題時,你是否也願意關注社會上貧窮的議題(M型社會正夯?)。


latimes.com 

Poverty and HIV are strongly linked, CDC survey finds 

Regardless of race or ethnicity, heterosexuals living in low-income communities are up to five times more likely to be HIV-positive than the rest of the U.S. population.

By Thomas H. Maugh II, Los Angeles Times

July 20, 2010

Heterosexuals living below the poverty line in U.S. cities are five times as likely as the nation's general population to be HIV-positive, regardless of their race or ethnicity, the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said Monday.

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文章轉錄自Yahoo News(點此連結);文章主要論述:在亞太地區的國家,其反同性戀的法律(或宣告同性戀為違法的法律)將愛滋病感染率推至令人擔憂的水平之上。在文章末尾,附上《Elizabeth Pisani:性交,毒品,HIV—讓我們理智起來》此演講;在此不特別宣導關於愛滋病的衛教資訊(有興趣請點此連結:衛教資訊);第一、個體與疾病的關係是基於更大的社會脈絡上,對疾病這看不見的敵人,如何看待、如何應對,正是反應那個時代與文化中的人們其價值及精神;第二、我們可不可以接受我們的健康與大環境有關?而這「大環境」除了自然環境(如上篇所討論),還有人所創造的社會環境:法律制度、文化觀念等等(譬如:電視上過多暴力及血腥畫面會增加人們暴力行為,電視上頻頻報導自殺新聞將會增加人們自殺的機率),但不論你接不接受你的生命及健康跟你周遭很多很多你不以為意的事物有關,面對愛滋病真的需要理智,將疾病污名化並不會減少疾病的發生,病毒是不分信仰的。


Yahoo! News 

Anti-gay laws spreading HIV in Asia-Pacific: UN

Wed Jul 21, 8:38 am ET
VIENNA (AFP) – Laws criminalizing gay sex in many countries in the Asia-Pacific region is pushing infection rates of HIV and AIDS to "alarming" levels, the United Nations Development Programme said Wednesday.

"Some 19 of 48 countries in the Asia Pacific region continue to criminalize male-to-male sex," UNDP said at the World AIDS Conference being held in Vienna this week.

"These laws often taken on the force of vigilantism, frequently leading to abuse and human rights violations. Correspondingly, HIV prevalence has reached alarming levels among men who have sex with men and transgender populations in many countries of the region," the statement said.

A new report, commissioned by UNDP and the Asia Pacific Coalition on Male Sexual Health (APCOM), found that by criminalizing gay men and transsexuals, people were being denied access to treatment and health services.

"Repressive legal environments institutionalize discrimination, limit funding and in effect obstruct the participation of men who have sex with men and transgender people in protecting themselves and their families, friends and communities from HIV," said Jeff O'Malley, director of UNDP's HIV Practice.

And he called for the abolition of "punitive laws and discriminatory practices."

APCOM head Shivananda Khan said that unnecessary infection could be prevented by ensuring that "all citizens of a country, irrespective of their sexual orientation or gender identity can access health services."

The report's author, John Goodwin said that "comprehensive and rights-based HIV responses among men who have sex with men and transgender people can occur only when a conducive and enabling legal environment is created."


Elizabeth Pisani:性交,毒品,HIV—讓我們理智起來

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此篇文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:氣喘與空氣污染與自殺機率(自殺危機)有正相關,當短時間內的大氣塵粒(airborne particles)增加,自殺率將比之前的自殺率提昇百分之九,且罹患心血管疾病的病患自殺率也比原先自殺率提昇百分之十九。第一、這篇研究結果台灣研究團隊有參與(包括高醫、北醫、中山醫學院),數據應有包括台灣城市,所以這篇研究結果是基於台灣經驗、適用於台灣的;第二、通常我們會認為自殺是屬於心理疾病或認知思考的範疇,或頂多到生理機制,但並未與「大環境」(nature environment)連結,但其實有許多研究以環境為基底來觀看社會現象,譬如:有研究指出地區犯罪率與當地水污染狀況有關;第三、這依舊是「相關」研究,無法建立明確的因果影響機制,因此空氣污染只是反應該地區的都市化,而都市中的工作型態因而影響自殺機率(這只是一種假設可能,或者都市化反應的人口密度才是真正與自殺率有關),相關法的缺陷就是中間有太多混淆變項;第四、這第四點要回到第二點來說明,心理學的角度實屬個人,社會學屬社會集體層次,但可能個體或群體的心理現象是與地形氣候有關(而且這關聯超乎我們想像),譬如:季節性憂鬱症(seasonal depression)即是與太陽日照時間有關,而太陽日照時間長短與地球緯度有關。最近,環境議題(墨西哥灣漏油事件、白海豚會轉彎、溼地保護、六輕失火)在新聞中吵得沸沸揚揚,你有沒有思考過,你現在的心情、心理健康可能與這些自然環境息息相關呢?(好吧,或者是蝴蝶效應般的相關)。


Medical News Today

Large Studies Link Asthma And Air Pollution To Suicide Risk

16 Jul 2010

Suicide rates increase not only as a result of mental illness, but also when there are difficulties with breathing, according to two large Asian population studies that detected the effects of air pollution and asthma, an illness that itself is exacerbated by poor air conditions.

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文章轉錄自Science Daily(點此連結);文章主要論述:研究者使用機器人來研究什麼因素會使人信任或不信任陌生人,使用機器人在於研究者可以明確操控手勢、對話等各種變項,文章並未指出明確的信任建立機制,但最後敘述到,建立信任的過程是基於「雙方」的互動。信任一件物體(非人)比較簡單,還是信任一個人呢?譬如:你會信任某個品牌車子的性能,但卻可能不太信任駕駛者或製造商,所以,當人面對機器人時所建立的信任關係,真的是能類推至人和人之間的信任關係嗎?(這是大哉問)(有許多社會現象或電影故事描述,有人無法在現實中信任他人,因而寧願轉而信任起虛擬人物)(好吧,把「人」和「非人」作為二分切割,或許有人會不滿意,尤其在越來越多人工器官置於人類身體的科技時代下);如文中所提,人類互動過程中會無意識下「模仿」(mimic)對方的身體語言,而彼此信任的人其身體語言亦會共舞(dance),此概念即是諮商實務中會教導的mirror技巧。


Researchers Use Robot to Determine How Human Strangers Develop Trust


David DeSteno and MIT's Jin Joo Lee worked with Nexi the robot on the research project. (Credit: Photo by Mary Knox Merrill.)

ScienceDaily (July 10, 2010) — What can a wide-eyed, talking robot teach us about trust?

A lot, according to Northeastern psychology professor David DeSteno, and his colleagues, who are conducting innovative research to determine how humans decide to trust strangers -- and if those decisions are accurate.

The interdisciplinary research project, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), is being conducted in collaboration with Cynthia Breazeal, director of the MIT Media Lab's Personal Robots Group, Robert Frank, an economist, and David Pizarro, a psychologist, both from Cornell.

The researchers are examining whether nonverbal cues and gestures could affect our trustworthiness judgments. "People tend to mimic each other's body language," said DeSteno, "which might help them develop intuitions about what other people are feeling -- intuitions about whether they'll treat them fairly."

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此篇文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:狗能幫助士兵自「創傷後壓力症候群」(PTSD)中恢復。正如文章所說,「動物不僅可愛,亦能提供支持」,這說法也可以解釋為什麼很多單身或孤單的人會決定養隻寵物來陪伴自己;而且動物陪伴勝於人彼此之間的陪伴,更在於「無言的」支持,人和人陪伴經常會擺出價值判斷的態度與回應(譬如:這次你得到教訓下次你就會配合疏散了),反而狗,無言地陪伴,搖搖尾巴,耐心地跟在主人身旁,讓人能感覺到更大的包容與接納。


Medical News Today

U.S. Army: Dogs Help Battle PTSD

05 Jul 2010

The Army is using dogs "much more" to help soldiers recovering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) according to the Army Surgeon General's special assistant for mental health, Col. Elspeth Cameron Ritchie, M.D., who spoke at the annual convention of the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). 

"Animals are not just cute," Ritchie said. "They provide support."

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此篇文章轉錄自Science Daily(點此連結);文章主要論述:人大腦中不同特定區域的大小會對應出他們自己的個性;舉例而言,謹慎小心的人傾向會有較大的外側前額葉皮層,而此皮質區域即是主管計畫和控制行為(在Big Five分類中,只有Openness開放性此人格特質並未發現與大腦某一特定區域大小有相關)。文章末尾,特別提及,這樣的研究結果並「非」代表「個性是天生的」,因為大腦具有可塑性,外來經驗是會影響大腦發展的過程;此外,生理心理學常會面臨到的問題是不知道蛋生雞還是雞生蛋,以此研究為例,很難確定是個體間的大腦差異影響個體的性格表現,還是因為個體的性格表現行為型塑出不同的個體大腦,當然,心理學的「標準」答案(保守共識)即是兩者之間相互影響,也就是大腦差異與個體性格彼此交互影響,如同循環。


Brain Structure Corresponds to Personality

ScienceDaily (June 23, 2010) — Personalities come in all kinds. Now psychological scientists have found that the size of different parts of people's brains correspond to their personalities; for example, conscientious people tend to have a bigger lateral prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain involved in planning and controlling behavior.

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此篇文章轉錄自Science Daily(點此連結);文章主要論述:能以藉由電腦程式去計算部落格或線上的文字,分析書寫者的心理狀態,協助篩選出是否有憂鬱傾向。針對某些特殊詞彙去做計算書寫者的使用字頻,已是可行且成熟的技術,只是,這是否即是代表書寫者的情緒,仍然根基於一個預設是「文本能代表書寫者本身」(很多憂鬱症患者出書或創作,的確是可以讀到其憂鬱情緒的);文章提及,電腦軟體只能進行初步篩選,無法取代專業人員對精神疾患的判斷。熱愛科技的台灣,是否會引進這套技術對全台灣的部落客做「精神篩檢」呢?或者更進一步,要求像「莒光作文簿」,把每篇學生週記變成電子檔去計算學生的憂鬱傾向?人類,能否擁有憂鬱且不受篩選、治療的自由?


Computer Program Detects Depression in Bloggers' Texts

ScienceDaily (June 21, 2010) — Researchers at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) developed a software program that can detect depression in blogs and online texts. The software is capable of identifying language that can indicate the writer's psychological state, which could serve as a screening tool.

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文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:精神分裂症的腦部變異機率可以藉著觀察剛出生幾週的嬰兒腦部預測得知,高機率的男嬰為較大的大腦與側腦室(lateral ventricle),而較大的大腦也常與自閉症有關;觀察女嬰大腦則沒有統計上顯著的大小差異,這與在精神分裂症中男性較為嚴重且普遍的現象相一致,此研究結果可以協助早期介入計畫的可能。就此不論,研究假設與統計檢測上可能的瑕疵,如果能在嬰兒時期就能掌握大腦發展狀況,的確是有可能減少器質性(生物性)上所衍生的精神疾病;只是為人父母的你,一旦知道你襁褓中的孩子「有機率」得到哪些病症時,會如何反應呢?譬如,醫生告訴你,你的孩子有可能擁有同性戀的大腦、犯罪反社會人格的大腦、精神分裂症的大腦時,你會怎麼做?又該怎麼做?


Medical News Today

Brain Signs Of Schizophrenia Found In Babies

22 Jun 2010

Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental disorder affecting one in 100 people worldwide. Most cases aren't detected until a person starts experiencing symptoms like delusions and hallucinations as a teenager or adult. By that time, the disease has often progressed so far that it can be difficult to treat.

In a paper published recently online by the American Journal of Psychiatry, researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Columbia University provide the first evidence that brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia risk are detectable in babies only a few weeks old.

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文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:在背景音樂是播放情歌之後,女性會更容易將她們的電話號碼給普通的男性;媒體暴露(media exposure)的影響不止於在暴力內容,連情歌亦有,文章主要提及三種解釋:一、觀察學習(observational learning):最典型的研究實驗即為Bobo Doll;二、正向效果(positive effect):每一客體都會多少對人類情緒有正面或負面的感受影響,但此篇文章指的是:情歌的正面效果可能與求偶有關聯(譬如:很多生物與人類文化都會利用歌唱來求偶);三、印記效果(priming effect):也就是歌曲中的旋律或歌詞潛意識地流進腦海中,因而影響之後的行為決策,著名的例子是:在電影院裡,於人類意識閾值下,插進「請去買爆米花」的字卡,因而提高觀眾去買爆米花的行為(但事後研究仍指出:這個爆米花研究並不是真的有效;但priming effect是認知研究蠻常出現的效果,也「呼應」了當初佛洛伊德的潛意識,即便兩個領域的潛意識意義完全不同)。


Medical News Today

Love Ballad Leaves Women More Open To A Date

21 Jun 2010  

If you're having trouble getting a date, French researchers suggest that picking the right soundtrack could improve the odds. Women were more prepared to give their number to an 'average' young man after listening to romantic background music, according to research that appears in the journal Psychology of Music, published by SAGE.

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文章轉錄自ScienceDaily(點此連結);文章主要論述:對於平靜中度至重度之阿茲海默症所會產生的衰退情緒,蘋果汁是一個有效的增添物;對於阿茲海默症的認知能力(失智症狀)是沒有任何改善的,但是可以改善行為與精神症狀,包括焦慮不安及妄想。雖然研究的母群體不知是否具有代表性或規模足夠,但文章最後提及到營養策略(Nutritional Approach),指稱不是只有蘋果汁,只要是健康蔬果或許都能有這種效果;而這不就是老祖宗的「食療」嗎?


Apple Juice Improves Behavior but Not Cognition in Alzheimer's Patients, Study Finds

ScienceDaily (June 16, 2010) — Apple juice can be a useful supplement for calming the declining moods that are part of the normal progression of moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease (AD), according to a study in American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias (AJADD), published by SAGE.

In the AJADD study, after institutionalized AD patients consumed two 4-oz glasses of apple juice a day for a month, their caregivers reported no change in the patients' Dementia Rating Scale or their day-to-day abilities. What did change, however, was the behavioral and psychotic symptoms associated with their dementia (as quantified by the Neuropsychiatric Inventory), with approximately 27% improvement, mostly in the areas related to anxiety, agitation, and delusion.

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這篇文章轉陸自guadian.co.uk(點此連結);文章主要論述:大腦對我們的手掌大小和形狀有著扭曲的表徵,傾向於將自己的手掌想得來得短一些、胖一些;而這樣扭曲的誤差可能與身體每一部份其相對應的大腦皮質區域的敏感度有關,而此研究結果也可以幫助理解厭食或暴食症(anorexia, eating disorder)。設計一台機器人,想必機器人得時時刻刻知道自己身體每一部位的位置和明確知道自己的大小,才不會撞到外界物品,套用在人類上,人類應也有一個這般「精確」的系統;但事實上,這份研究意謂,我們並不是先掌握自己身體真實的物理大小,再而於潛意識中,快速地計算出我們該怎麼動作。雖然仍不知背後清楚的歷程,但是我們也不會因估計自己手指短一點,而手就摸不到東西了;這份研究更希望延伸至飲食障礙,瞭解人類怎麼看待自己的身體,形塑出身體意象(self-image)。


A study suggests our brains have highly distorted representations of the size and shape of our own hands. The distortion may extend to other body parts, skewing body image

Body image distortion for handView larger picture

True locations of knuckles and tips of each finger (black dots) and subjects' judgements of where they are (white dots). Average hand shape is given as solid lines for the actual hand and as dotted lines for subjective judgements. Click above to see whole image. Diagram: PNAS

You may think you know the back of your hand like, well, the back of your hand. But think again. Scientists have found that our brains contain highly distorted representations of the size and shape of our hands, with a strong tendency to think of them as shorter and fatter than they really are.

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此篇文章轉錄自Medical News Today(點此連結);文章主要論述:協助克服怯場(上台恐懼: stage fright)以往使用藥物或有氧運動,如今可嘗試使用生理回饋訓練(biofeedback training);生理回饋訓練的概念是基於若大腦、心臟、身體系統之間若能彼此溝通和平衡,便能互相配合而穩定焦慮,生理回饋訓練多數使用在減緩焦慮症狀。這篇文章提及「音樂表演焦慮」(MPA: Musical Performance Anxiety),我相信這類標籤只是方便指稱而已,上台表演有各式各樣,若繼續標籤下去,可能還會有「上台演講焦慮」「唱歌表演焦慮」「冷場焦慮」「怕講笑話不好笑的焦慮」「沒節目效果還故意摔倒的焦慮」。這代表,人具有幾項基本情緒(如古人所說的七情:喜怒哀懼愛惡欲),但引發情緒的原因、脈絡和環境是無法窮盡的。


Medical News Today

New Treatment For Stage Fright

09 Jun 2010 

Traditionally, the most successful methods used to combat stage fright have been prescribed medications (beta blockers) and aerobic exercise. In the most recent issue of Biofeedback, researchers studied another technique: the effect of biofeedback training on Musical Performance Anxiety (MPA). MPA is a severe form of stage fright marked by high anxiety levels and impaired performance.

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